Tools for Oceanography and Ecosystemic Modeling

<p>Foreword&nbsp; xi</p>
<p>Chapter 1. For a Systemic and Transdisciplinary Approach to the Environment&nbsp; 1<br />Andr&eacute; MONACO, Patrick PROUZET and Patrick VINCENT</p>
<p>1.1. Introduction 1</p>
<p>1.2. A complex and vulnerable ocean system 4</p>
<p>1.3. Suitable observation tools&nbsp; 9</p>
<p>1.3.1. For a systemic vision of the ocean 10</p>
<p>1.3.2. To assess our vulnerability to global change 11</p>
<p>1.3.3. The contribution of operational oceanography&nbsp; 13</p>
<p>1.3.4. New technologies applied to the living world&nbsp; 15</p>
<p>1.4. Conclusion 16</p>
<p>1.5. Acknowledgments 17</p>
<p>1.6. Bibliography&nbsp; 17</p>
<p>Chapter 2. Vulnerability to Global Change: Observation Strategies for the Marine Environment&nbsp; 19<br />Patrick FARCY, Gilles REVERDIN and Philippe BERTRAND</p>
<p>2.1. Introduction 19</p>
<p>2.2. Marine environment observation strategies&nbsp; 20</p>
<p>2.2.1. Parameters to measure&nbsp; 21</p>
<p>2.2.2. Measurement techniques with wide–ranging applications 25</p>
<p>2.3. Some large observation domains&nbsp; 28</p>
<p>2.3.1. The open sea&nbsp; 28</p>
<p>2.3.2. The coastal and littoral ocean&nbsp; 30</p>
<p>2.3.3. The ocean floor: substratum and population 36</p>
<p>2.4. Satellite contribution to observation strategies&nbsp; 42</p>
<p>2.5. In situ observation 45</p>
<p>2.5.1. Lagrangian measurements at the surface and in the water column 45</p>
<p>2.5.2. Eulerian measurements 56</p>
<p>2.5.3. Other significant parameters&nbsp; 60</p>
<p>2.6. Observation strategies 64</p>
<p>2.6.1. The observatory approach&nbsp; 64</p>
<p>2.6.2. Some examples of the complementariness of the measurements taken by networks 66</p>
<p>2.6.3. What s the point of modeling? 67</p>
<p>2.7. What next? 69</p>
<p>2.8. Bibliography&nbsp; 72</p>
<p>Chapter 3. Fishing Technology for Fisheries Research 75<br />Pascal LARNAUD and Benoit VINCENT</p>
<p>3.1. Introduction 75</p>
<p>3.2. The methods employed to measure selectivity&nbsp; 77</p>
<p>3.2.1. What is selectivity?&nbsp; 77</p>
<p>3.2.2. The tools employed to measure meshes&nbsp; 79</p>
<p>3.2.3. The case of trawls 81</p>
<p>3.2.4. Fishing nets and other gear 89</p>
<p>3.3. The tools and observation methods of fishing gear 94</p>
<p>3.3.1. Hydrodynamic tank test 95</p>
<p>3.3.2. Submarine video recording 99</p>
<p>3.3.3. Measurement tools in the domain of fishing technology&nbsp; 103</p>
<p>3.4. Computer simulation tools&nbsp; 104</p>
<p>3.5. Perspectives&nbsp; 108</p>
<p>3.6. Bibliography&nbsp; 109</p>
<p>Chapter 4. Acoustics to Detect and Measure Underwater Organisms&nbsp; 113<br />Verena TRENKEL, Aude PACINI and Laurent BERGER</p>
<p>4.1. Introduction 113</p>
<p>4.1.1. Physical principles of underwater acoustics 113</p>
<p>4.1.2. Instruments&nbsp; 117</p>
<p>4.2. How animals use acoustics&nbsp; 120</p>
<p>4.2.1. Marine mammals 121</p>
<p>4.2.2. Fish 123</p>
<p>4.2.3. Other marine animals&nbsp; 124</p>
<p>4.3. How researchers use acoustics 124</p>
<p>4.3.1. Widening the observation scope&nbsp; 124</p>
<p>4.3.2. Describing animal behavior 126</p>
<p>4.3.3. Estimating fish abundance 128</p>
<p>4.3.4. Ecosystem indicators 130</p>
<p>4.3.5. Seafloor and benthic habitat characterization&nbsp; 131</p>
<p>4.3.6. Quantifying the impact of human activities on ecosystems 131</p>
<p>4.4. Practical uses of acoustics&nbsp; 132</p>
<p>4.4.1. Equipment 132</p>
<p>4.4.2. Carrying out a research cruise 135</p>
<p>4.4.3. Data processing&nbsp; 137</p>
<p>4.4.4. Advantages and drawbacks of acoustics 139</p>
<p>4.5. Acknowledgments 140</p>
<p>4.6. Bibliography&nbsp; 140</p>
<p>Chapter 5. Bio–logging as a Tool to Study and Monitor Marine Ecosystems, or How to Spy on Sea Creatures 143<br />Yann TREMBLAY and Sophie BERTRAND</p>
<p>5.1. Introduction 143</p>
<p>5.2. The variety of sensors and measurements 144</p>
<p>5.2.1. Position measurements&nbsp; 144</p>
<p>5.2.2. Physiological measurements&nbsp; 147</p>
<p>5.2.3. Behavioral measurements&nbsp; 147</p>
<p>5.2.4. Environmental measurements 148</p>
<p>5.2.5. Presence measurements 149</p>
<p>5.3. Attachment methods: limits and ethics 150</p>
<p>5.4. Current challenges 152</p>
<p>5.5. Some examples of discoveries resulting from bio–logging&nbsp; 153</p>
<p>5.5.1. The marine field is huge, and yet &nbsp; 153</p>
<p>5.5.2. To adjust, yes, but how? 154</p>
<p>5.5.3. Animals as oceanographers 156</p>
<p>5.5.4. The impact of oceanographic structures 156</p>
<p>5.5.5. Interactions with fisheries, their management and conservation 157</p>
<p>5.6. Conclusion 161</p>
<p>5.7. Bibliography&nbsp; 162</p>
<p>Chapter 6. Modeling Strategies for Ecosystems 175<br />C&eacute;dric BACHER and Nathalie NIQUIL</p>
<p>6.1. Definition of mathematical modeling 175</p>
<p>6.1.1. Introduction&nbsp; 175</p>
<p>6.1.2. The main currents of ecological modeling&nbsp; 177</p>
<p>6.2. Mathematical formalization 178</p>
<p>6.2.1. State variables, process variables and the equation of state 178</p>
<p>6.2.2. Functional responses 180</p>
<p>6.2.3. Simplified food web 187</p>
<p>6.3. Metabolic foundations of population dynamics&nbsp; 192</p>
<p>6.3.1. Metabolic laws&nbsp; 192</p>
<p>6.3.2. Population and communities&nbsp; 197</p>
<p>6.4. Modeling complexity 199</p>
<p>6.4.1. Introduction&nbsp; 199</p>
<p>6.4.2. From NPZD to trophodynamic models&nbsp; 203</p>
<p>6.4.3. Static holistic models 204</p>
<p>6.5. Conclusion 209</p>
<p>6.5.1. The ideal of end–to–end models 209</p>
<p>6.5.2. To find out more 210</p>
<p>6.6. Acknowledgments 212</p>
<p>6.7. Bibliography&nbsp; 212</p>
<p>Chapter 7. The Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries: Reconciling Conservation and Exploitation 221<br />Philippe CURY, Arnaud BERTRAND, Sophie BERTRAND, Marta COLL, Philippe GROS, Souad KIFANI, Fran&ccedil;ois Le LOCH, Olivier MAURY, Fr&eacute;d&eacute;ric MENARD, Florent RENAUD, Lynn SHANNON and Yunne–Jai SHIN</p>
<p>7.1. The ecosystem approach to fisheries: a shared view on the management of marine resources 221</p>
<p>7.1.1. The challenges of the ecosystem approach&nbsp; 221</p>
<p>7.1.2. Three bodies of the United Nations structure the ecosystem approach to global fisheries&nbsp; 223</p>
<p>7.1.3. The complex matter of scientific issues supporting governance 233</p>
<p>7.2. The way marine ecosystems work 236</p>
<p>7.2.1. Bottom–up, top–down and wasp–wait controls&nbsp; 236</p>
<p>7.2.2. Trophic relationships in marine ecosystems 248</p>
<p>7.3. EAF and research on marine ecosystems 256</p>
<p>7.3.1. Quantifying ecological interactions&nbsp; 256</p>
<p>7.3.2. Understanding spatial dynamics&nbsp; 258</p>
<p>7.3.3. Modeling as a tool to integrate knowledge&nbsp; 262</p>
<p>7.4. Ecological indicators Marine Strategy Framework Directive (MSFD)&nbsp; 271</p>
<p>7.4.1. Three current levels of organization: international, national and regional&nbsp; 273</p>
<p>7.4.2. The ecosystem approach of the MSFD&nbsp; 274</p>
<p>7.4.3. The assessment of food webs&nbsp; 275</p>
<p>7.5. Implementing the EAF: the Benguela and Humboldt examples&nbsp; 278</p>
<p>7.5.1. Benguela&nbsp; 278</p>
<p>7.5.2. The Humboldt 283</p>
<p>7.6. Dynamic approaches to the ecosystem management of fisheries&nbsp; 289</p>
<p>7.7. Bibliography&nbsp; 290</p>
<p>Chapter 8. Modeling in Contemporary Sciences: Efficiency and Limits Examples from Oceanography&nbsp; 313<br />Alain PAV&Eacute;</p>
<p>8.1. Introduction 313</p>
<p>8.2. A language to describe reality&nbsp; 314</p>
<p>8.3. Relationships between models and reality 315</p>
<p>8.4. What about marine ecological systems and their management? 323</p>
<p>8.5. Interdisciplinarity, transdisciplinarity and modeling 329</p>
<p>8.5. Bibliography&nbsp; 332</p>
<p>List of Authors&nbsp; 337</p>
<p>Index 339</p>